Policing in times of globalization: counterterrorism legislation as a platform for the militarization of policing in Argentina
Keywords:
Gendarmerie, Globalization, Anti-terrorist policy, Indigenous peoples, Police repressionAbstract
A special focus on the global securitization agenda, driven by the US war on terror, has expanded the mechanisms of penal control and crudified global legislation on the subject, even in countries of the Global South, where this is not the main concern. To illustrate this phenomenon, this paper focuses on the case of Argentina, where the government has dedicated a semi-military police force (the Gendarmerie) to confront indigenous peoples and other social protesters fighting for their rights, labeling them as terrorists and using the discourse and global instruments of counter-terrorism as a platform for legitimization. The aim of this article is therefore to explore the impact of international pressure for the approval of anti-terrorist legislation on Argentine domestic policing, through the Gendarmerie. The methodological approach is based on a qualitative analysis of reports by international organizations, local and international media, national laws and administrative regulations, speeches by government authorities and NGO reports. Critical discourse analysis uncovers the power relations underlying the sources mentioned in order to confront opposing narratives. Finally, it concludes that it is necessary to shed light on the use of anti-terrorist discourses and legislation as a platform for the militarization of policing and the repression of social protesters, so that the topic, beyond studies on policing, can be used as a platform for the repression of social protesters.References
AMAYA. S. Neuquén: un jurado intercultural absolvió a la dirigente mapuche Relmu Ñamku’. La Nación, 4 November 2015.
AMNISTIA INTERNACIONAL. Transformar dolor en esperanza: defensores y defensoras de derechos humanos en América, 2012.
AMNISTIA INTERNACIONAL. El estado de los derechos humanos en el mundo, 2013.
AMNISTIA INTERNACIONAL. Derechos humanos: agenda para Argentina, 2017a.
AMNISTIA INTERNACIONAL. La lucha indígena no es delito, 2017b.
ANDERSEN. M. La policía. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 2002.
ANDRADE, C. HUALA, J. NAHUEL, R. Los dos casos que atraviesan las protestas del Sur. Clarin, 17 July 2018.
ANWAR, S; FANG, H. Testing for racial prejudice in the parole board release process: theory and evidence. Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 44, 16 January 2015.
ARGENTINA. Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. GE.17-00416 (S), 14 January 2017.
BECKER, H. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, New York: The Free Press, 1966.
BRUNKHORST, H. Revolution and evolution of cosmopolitan constitutionalism. In R. Nickel & A. Greppi (Eds.). The Changing Role of Law in the Age of Supra-and Transnational Governance, 2014.
BUNCOMBE, A. Hijab wearing is ‘passive terrorism’, says U.S. military publication. The Independent, 24 February 2016.
CAMINOS, M. Así operaba Gendarmería sobre las protestas de los empleados de Kraft’, La Nación, 17 February 2012.
CAVAROZZI, M. Autoritarismo y democracia (1955-1983). Centro Editor de América Latina, 1992.
CELS - Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. Brutal operativo policial y torturas contra la comunidad nam qom de formosa: audiencia ante la CIDH, 30 November 2016.
CELS - Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. Diez preguntas y respuestas sobre el caso Santiago Maldonado, November 2017a.
CELS - Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. Derechos humanos en la Argentina, 2017b.
CELS - Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. El derecho a la protesta social en la argentina, 2018a.
CELS - Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. Argentina: El derecho a la protesta en riesgo, 1 March 2018b.
CHILLIER, G. Ley antiterrorista k-gafi: obediencia debida. Las rosas de azul, 2011.
CLARÍN. La muerte de Rafael Nahuel: el gobernador Weretilneck sembró dudas sobre la escena que encontró el juez en el predio mapuche, 2017.
CLARÍN, Ascienden Emmanuel. Echazú, el gendarme imputado en el caso Santiago Maldonado, 3 January 2018.
ClARÍN, Marcos. Peña dijo que los próximos meses serán “fríos y tormentosos” para la economía, 23 July 2018.
COHEN, S. Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers. London: Routledge, 2002.
CS 4137/2015, Ministerio Público Fiscal c/ J H, Martiniano y otros.
CS 1810/2017, Casa de la Pcia. de Chubut s/daños.
DALHOUSIE, S. Assessing racial discrimination in parole release. U. Nicolas Sahuguet Hec Montréal, Cepr and Cirpee, 19 November 2011.
DAVIS, A. Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
DAVIS, K. Indicators as a technology of global governance. Law and Society, vol. 46, n. 1, March 2012.
DAVIS, K; FISHER, A; KINGSBURY, B; MERRY, S. Governance by Indicators. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
DE LOS SANTOS, G. Día de furia por el fallo que extraditó a Chile a Jones Huala. La Nación, 6 March 2018.
DE VEDIA, M. Carta Abierta pidió al Gobierno revisar la ley antiterrorista. La Nación, Dic. 30, 2011.
DINATALE, M. Laborde: La ONU apoyara una nueva ley antiterrorista en Argentina. Infobae, 20 March 2018.
DI NICOLA, G. La Gendarmería sumó una unidad especializada en contraterrorismo, 3 March 2018.
DUVE, T. European legal history – concepts, methods, challenges. In T. Duve (Ed.), Entanglements. Legal History: Conceptual Approaches, Frankfurt am Main: Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, 2014, p. 29-66.
DUVE, T. Summer School, Frankfurt am Main: Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, 16 July 2018.
ESCOLAR, D. Gendarmería: Los límites de la obediencia, Buenos Aires: Sb, 2017.
ESCOLAR, D., ‘Mandá a la Gendarmeria’, Anfibia, 2017b.
FAIRCLOUGH, N. Language and Power. London: Longman, 1989.
FATF - Financial Action Task Force. Mutual Evaluation Report: Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism. Argentina, 2010.
FATF - Financial Action Task Force. Improving Global AML/CFT Compliance: OnGoing Process – 24 October 2014.
FATF - Financial Action Task Force. Opening Speech by the President of Argentina, Mauricio Macri, at the Joint F.A.T.F./GAFILAT Plenary, Buenos Aires, 1- 3 November 2017.
FATF - Financial Action Task Force. F.A.T.F. President’s remarks at the Egmont Working Group and Heads of Financial Intelligence Units (FIU) meeting, 12-15 March 2018.
FRAGA, R. El rol de las Fuerzas Armadas: una reforma necesaria a la espera de un mayor presupuesto, Clarin, 24 July 2018.
FRIEDMAN, L. Some thoughts on contemporary legal history, Quaderni della Sezione di Teoria Generale e Informatica del Diritto, 1996.
GALLI, F. The war on terror and crusading judges: re-establishing the primacy of the criminal justice system. In A. Masferrer (Ed.), Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency, Dordrecht: Springer, 2012.
GARCÍA, C. The UN calls for the release of activist Milagro Sala, Impunity Watch, 8 November 2016.
GIARDINELLI, M. Ley antiterrorista o el terror a esta ley. Página/12, Dic. 15, 2011.
GIARRACCA, N. El asesinato de Javier Chocobar. Página/12, Oct. 20, 2009.
HANHIMAKI, J; BLUMENAU, B. Introduction. In J. Hanhimaki & B. Blumenau (Eds.). An International History of Terrorism. London: Routledge, 2013, p. 1-14.
HÄRTER, K. Security and cross-border political crime: the formation of transnational security regimes in 18th and 19th century Europe. In C. Zwierlein & B. de Graaf (Eds.). Security and Conspiracy in History, vol. 38, n. 1, p. 96-106, 2013.
HARVEY, D. Spaces of Global Capitalism. London/New York: Verso, 2006.
HATHAZY, P. Fighting for a democratic police: politics, experts and bureaucrats in the transformation of the police in post-authoritarian Chile and Argentina, Comparative Sociology, vol. 12, p. 1-43, 2013.
HATHAZY, P. La (re)militarización policial en la Argentina post-crisis: entre intereses organizacionales e instrumentalización política en los campos policiales. DILEMAS: Revista de Estudos de Conflito e Controle Social, vol. 9, n. 1, p. 67-101, 2016.
HISPANTV. Argentinos se movilizan y piden justicia por Santiago Maldonado, 21 October 2017.
HOFFMAN, B. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
HORN, S. As Trump unfurls infrastructure plan, Iowa bill seeks to criminalize pipeline protests, Desmog, 31 January 2018.
INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS. Res. 32/2017, Precautionary Measure, N. 564-17 in respect to Argentina, 22 August 2017.
INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS. IACHR finds failure to comply with precautionary measures for Milagro Sala in Argentina and sends request to InterAmerican Court, 3 November 2017.
IÑURRIETA, S. G20: el gobierno hara una millonaria compra de material antidisturbios. Perfil, 24 July 2018.
JAKOBS, G; MELIÁ CANCIO, M. Derecho penal del enemigo, Madrid: Civitas, 2003.
KENNEDY, R. Racial trends in the administration of criminal justice. In W. Wilson et al. (Eds.), America Becoming: Racial Trends and their Consequences II, 2001.
KRAMER, R.C; MICHALOWSKI, R.J. State-corporate crime: prepared for American Society of Criminology Meeting Baltimore: Maryland, 7-12 November 1990.
KRASNER, S. Westphalia and all that. In J. Goldstein & R. Keohane (Eds.). Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change. New York: Cornell University Press, 1993, p. 235-264.
LA IZQUIERDA DARIO. Pichetto justificó el crimen de Rafael Nahuel a manos de Prefectura en Bariloche, 27 November 2017.
LA NACIÓN. La Gendarmería reprimió a trabajadores de Lear en la Panamericana, 23 October 2014.
LA NACIÓN. Violencia Mapuche en Chubut, 30 January 2017.
LA NACIÓN. Gabriela Michetti. Tras la muerte del mapuche: ‘El beneficio de la duda siempre lo tiene que tener la fuerza de seguridad’, 26 November 2017.
LA NACIÓN. El Gobierno oficializó el plan de reforma de las Fuerzas Armadas, 24 July 2018.
MAPUEXPRESS. Facundo Jones Huala es liberado en Argentina y no será extraditado a Chile, 2018.
MARKS, S. ‘Human rights and root causes’. The Modern Law Review, vol. 74, n. 1, p. 57-78, 2011.
MARTINEZ COBO, J. On the problem of discrimination against indigenous population adopted by UN, 1986.
MINIERI, R. Ese Ajeno Sur, Rio Negro, Fondo Editorial Rionegrino, 2006.
MOYANO, A. KOMÜTUAM: Descolonizar la historia mapuche en Patagonia. San Carlos de Bariloche: Alum Mapu Ediciones, 2013.
MPI - MPI for European Legal History. The legal history of Ibero-America, 2018, www. rg.mpg.de/research/legal_history_of_ibero_america.
MUZZOPAPPA, E. Militarización sin militares: policías en tiempos de guerra, Cuadernos de Marte, vol. 8, n. 13, July/December 2017.
NATIONAL MINISTRY OF SECURITY. Resultados de gestión, 30 August 2016.
NATIONAL MINISTRY OF SECURITY AND THE PROVINTIAL GOVERNMENTS OF RIO NEGRO. Neuquén and Chubut, Antecedents, judicialized facts and implications for security in the Argentinean Republic, 2017.
NIEVAS, F; BONAVENA, P. ‘La sociedad argentina se militariza: Yuxtaposición entre defensa y seguridad’, paper presented at UNLP VIII Jornadas de Sociología, 3-5 December, 2014 and published in «Memoria Académica».
PÁGINA 12. Liberaron a Agustín Santillán, 25 October 2017.
PÁGINA 12. La venia de un genocida para la Gendarmería, 4 October 2017.
PANTAZIS, C; PEMBERTON, S. ‘From the ‘old’ to the ‘new’ suspect communities: examining the impact of recent UK counter-terrorism legislation’. British Journal of Criminology, vol. 49, p. 646-666, 2009.
PANTAZIS, C; PEMBERTON, S. Frameworks of resistance: challenging the UK’s securitization agenda. In E. Stanley & J. McCulloch (Eds.), State crime and resistance. New York: Routledge, 2013.
PARLAMENTARIO. Argentina deberá sancionar una ley antiterrorista antes de junio, 27 February 2007.
PEREZ, P. Archivos Del Silencio. Estado, indigenas y violencia en Patagonia Central 1878- 1941, Buenos Aires: Prometeo, 2016.
PERFIL. Cresta Roja: cronología de una protesta que terminó en represión y quiebra’, Dic. 23, 2015.
PERFIL. Bullrich: No permitiremos que impongan una república autónoma mapuche, 8 August 2017.
PERFIL. Quién era Rafael Nahuel, el joven que murió en una represión de Prefectura, 26 November 2017.
PERFIL. Hackearon la web de Gendarmería con un mensaje sobre Maldonado, 24 August 2017.
POLISCHUK, S. ‘El intento de aplicar la Ley Antiterrorista sobre el pueblo mapuche en Argentina’, Resumen Latinoamericano, 25 April, 2015.
RAFELE, E. Con cautela Argentina espera salir de la lista gris del GAFI la próxima semana. Cronista, 15 October 2014.
RAMÍREZ, S. Las reivindicaciones indígenas se dan a lo largo y ancho del país, 27 November 2017.
RAMIREZ, D. A resource guide on racial profiling data collection systems – promising practices and lessons learned 3, 2000.
RENACE ARGENTINA. Tucumán: Desalojo de hermanos de la Comunidad India Quilmes de Colalao del Valle, 2 May 2011.
SAIN, M. Quince años de legislacion democratica sobre temas militares y de defensa (1983-1998), Desarrollo Economico, vol. 40, n. 157, p. 121-142, April-June 2000.
SÁNCHEZ, G. Facundo Jones Huala, el mapuche violento que le declaró la guerra a la Argentina y Chile. Clarín, 21 January 2017.
SAUL, B. Civilising the exception: universally defining terrorism. In A. Masferrer (Ed.). Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency, Dordrecht: Springer, 2012.
SSCHKANGER, M. Prison segregation and racial disparities, Solitary Watch, 2 November 2013.
SHAMAS, D; ARASTU, N. Mapping Muslims. NYP spying and its impact on American Muslims, CUNY, 2014.
SLAUGHTER, A. Disaggregated sovereignity. Toward the public accountability of global government networks. In J. Weiler & A. Nissel (Eds.). International Law. London: Routledge, 2011.
SMINL, V. La ley antiterrorista que causa polémica en Argentina, BBC Mundo, 15 February, 2012.
SORIANO, F. Muerte de Rafael Nahuel: Prefectura disparo al menos 114 veces y hay cinco agentes bajo sospecha, Infobae, 22 March 2018.
SPINETTA, F. Para el gobierno de Chubut, los mapuches reprimidos son terroristas, Página/12, 12 January 2017.
SUED, G. La oposición exige que la reforma de las Fuerzas Armadas pase por el Congreso. La Nacion, 24 July 2018.
SZASZ, M. The security council starts legislating, American Journal of International Law, vol. 96, n. 4, p. 901-915, 2002.
TAYLOR, I; WALTON, P; YOUNG, J. The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance. London: Routledge, 1973.
TELESUR. Argentinos marchan a 8 meses de desaparición de Santiago Maldonado, 2 April 2018.
TONRY, M. Race, ethnicity and punishment. In J. Petersilia & K. Reitz, The Oxford Handbook of Sentencing and Corrections. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 53-82.
TUERNR, B; HOLTON, R. Theories of globalization. Issued and origins. In B. Turner & R. Holton (Eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Globalization Studies. New York: Routledge, p. 3-23, 2016.
UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon (Appeals Chamber), Interlocutory Decision on the Applicable Law: Terrorism, Conspiracy, Homicide, Perpetration, Cumulative Charging, STL-11-01/1, 16 February 2011.
U.S. Chamber Institute for Legal Reform, Enforcement Gone Amok: The Many Faces of Over-Enforcement in the United States, May 2016.
VON BOGDANDY, A; DELLAVALLE, S. Universalism and particularism as paradigms of international law. In J. Weiler & A. Nissel (Eds.). International Law. London: Routledge, 2016.
VON BOGDANDY, A; GOLDMANN, M; VENZKE, I. From public international to international public law: translating world public opinion into international public authority. MPIL Research Paper Series, 2016.
WALKER, C. The impact of contemporary security agendas against terrorism on the substantive criminal law. In A. Masferrer (Ed.). Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency. Dordrecht: Springer, 2012.
WALKER, S; SPOHN, C; DELONE, M. The Color of Justice. Race, Ethnicity and Crime in America. Belmont: Cengage, 2012.
WAEVER, O. Security, the speech act: analyzing the politics of a word, Working Paper 19. Copenhagen: Center for Peace and Conflict Research, 1989.
WEIS, V. V. Marxism and Criminology. A History of Criminal Selectivity. Netherlands: BRILL, 2017a.
WEIS, V. V. Criminal selectivity in the United States. A history plagued by class and race bias. De Paul Journal of Social Justice, vol. 7, n. 2, p. 1-31, 2017b.
WEIS, V. V. The relevance of victims organizations in transitional justice processes. The case of grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo in Argentina, Intercultural Human Rights Law Review, v. 12, p. 1-70, 2017c.
WONDERS, N. Beyond transnational crime. Globalization, border reconstruction projects, and transnational crime, Social Justice, vol. 34, n. 2, p. 33-46, 2007.
YIN, R. Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1984.
YOUNG, J. The Vertigo of Late Modernity. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2007.
ZAFFARONI, R; ALAGIA, A; SLOKAR, A. Derecho Penal. Parte general, Buenos Aires: Ediar, 2002.
ZAJAC, J. Tapando baches, apagando incendios. Las prácticas de prevención e investigación de delitos de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina en los barrios del sur de la CABA. Sociales en Debate, vol. 11, p. 29-35, 2017.
ZIEGLER, F. The right to nondiscriminatory prosecution: The effect of announced screening policies. Revista La Ley, vol. 36, n. 8, 1976.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Valeria Vegh Weiss
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Submissions published in the Captura Críptica Journal are under the Creative Commons Attribution-noncommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
